Meanwhile, missile defense systems of the type being developed by Russia are becoming more capable. In 2024, Israel and the U.S. reportedly intercepted roughly 90 percent of two large Iranian missile barrages, each involving around 200 ballistic missiles.  The RUSI report found that if such a rate of interception could be replicated by a system protecting Moscow, then a modest British or French strike might not be able to achieve its intended effect. Sidharth Kaushal, author of the research, warned that the ability to strike Moscow “underpins the credibility of Europe’s independent nuclear deterrents,” and said this will be increasingly tested as the extended deterrence provided by the U.S. is “stretched” under pressure from China. Europe’s nuclear arsenal has been under renewed scrutiny in recent years, with several countries arguing for talks on a homegrown deterrent to complement American weapons. Although NATO is still overwhelmingly seen as the cornerstone of nuclear deterrence, countries such as France, Germany and Sweden have shown an increasing willingness to discuss Europe’s role amid concerns over whether U.S. would repel …